Japanese Yokai: The Complete Guide to Demons, Spirits & Supernatural Creatures

Reading Time: 20 minutes | Last Updated: October 2025

In the shadowy corners of Japanese folklore lurks a world populated by thousands of supernatural beings—shape-shifting foxes, umbrella monsters, wall-blocking spirits, and demons that devour nightmares. These are the yokai (妖怪), creatures that have haunted, entertained, and inspired Japan for over a millennium.

 Hyakki yakō by Kawanabe Kyosai

What Are Yokai? Understanding Japanese Supernatural Beings

Defining the Undefinable

The word yokai (妖怪) combines two kanji characters:

妖 (yō): mysterious, bewitching, calamity

怪 (kai): suspicious, mystery, apparition

Yokai are not simply "Japanese demons" as often mistranslated. They are:

The embodiment of inexplicable moments — that feeling when you hear footsteps behind you but no one's there, when objects disappear and reappear, when shadows move independently, when nature behaves strangely. Yokai are the supernatural explanation for the unexplainable.

Yokai by Kawanabe Kyosai

Yokai vs Other Supernatural Terms

Japanese folklore uses several overlapping terms:

YOKAI (妖怪) — Broadest term for supernatural creatures

• Can be malevolent, benevolent, or neutral
• Includes monsters, spirits, transformed objects
• Not all are evil

OBAKE (お化け) / BAKEMONO (化け物) — Shape-shifters

1. Subset of yokai that can transform
2. Literally means "thing that changes"
3. Examples: Kitsune (fox), Tanuki (raccoon dog)

YUREI (幽霊) — Ghosts of dead humans

• Spirits of people who died tragically
• Bound to earth by strong emotions (revenge, love, regret)
• Different from yokai (which were never human)

ONI (鬼) — Demons/Ogres

• Specific category of powerful, often malevolent yokai
• Usually depicted with horns, fangs, and clubs
• Can also mean "demon" in Buddhist context

MONONOKE (物の怪) — Spirit of things

• Literally "spirit of an object"
• Can possess people or objects
• Made famous by Studio Ghibli's Princess Mononoke

AYAKASHI (妖) — Sea/water-related yokai

• Regional term, mostly from western Japan
• Often describes mysterious phenomena at sea

 

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The History: From Ancient Fear to Pop Culture Icons

Origins: The Heian Period (794-1185)

The concept of yokai emerges in Japan's Heian Period (794-1185 CE), when nobles and commoners alike lived in constant fear of:

• Vengeful spirits of the dead
• Kami (gods/spirits) angered by human behavior
• Mysterious illnesses attributed to supernatural causes
• Natural disasters seen as divine punishment

First Written Records:

Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters, 712 CE) — mentions oni and other supernatural beings

Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720 CE) — documents encounters with spirits

The Tale of Genji (c. 1010 CE) — features mononoke possessing characters

Illustration from Japanese scroll painting Shinzei-kogakuzu (信西古楽図) showing a Silla Lion dance (新羅狛, Shiragi koma) originally from Korea. This is an 18th century copy of a Heian era painting.

Though not a yokai itself, the Silla Lion dance shown here illustrates the ritual roots of Japan’s supernatural imagery, where imported guardian spirits like the komainu bridged Korean, Buddhist, and Shinto traditions.

 

The Edo Period (1603-1868): The Golden Age of Yokai

An artistic depiction by Utagawa Kuniyoshi of the kami Inari appearing to a man

The Edo Period transforms yokai from objects of terror into entertainment:

Why the shift?

1. Peace and prosperity — 250 years without major wars = people had time to be entertained
2. Urbanization — Cities like Edo (Tokyo) and Kyoto grew, creating a demand for entertainment
3. Printing technology — Woodblock printing made books cheap and accessible
4. Rising literacy — More people could read illustrated stories

Key Developments:

1712: Wakan Sansai Zue (和漢三才図会)

• Illustrated encyclopedia of the natural and supernatural
• First systematic catalog of yokai with illustrations
• Influenced all later yokai depictions

1776: Gazu Hyakki Yagyō (画図百鬼夜行)

• "The Illustrated Night Parade of One Hundred Demons"
• Created by artist Toriyama Sekien (1712-1788)
• Single most influential yokai compendium ever made
• Many yokai we know today were invented or codified by Sekien

1830s-1850s: Ukiyo-e (woodblock prints) boom

• Artists like Utagawa Kuniyoshi created terrifying yokai prints
• Katsushika Hokusai illustrated supernatural stories
• Yokai became pop culture icons

Sara-yashiki on the left and Kohada Koheiji on the right, by Hokusai.

Meiji Period (1868-1912): The Decline Japan's modernization crisis for yokai:

• Western science introduced = supernatural explanations rejected
• Electric lights replaced lanterns = fewer "mysterious shadows"
• Railways and telegraphs = "civilized" Japan distanced itself from "superstitious" past
• Government actively discouraged folklore as "backwards"

By 1900, yokai seemed destined for extinction.

Showa Period (1926-1989): The Revival

1960s: Shigeru Mizuki (1922-2015) single-handedly revives yokai with his manga GeGeGe no Kitaro

• Made yokai friendly, cute, relatable
• Created 30+ new yokai that are now considered "traditional"
• Sparked nationwide yokai boom

1960s-1970s: Yokai Monsters film series

• Live-action horror films featuring classic yokai
• Became cult classics

Heisei & Reiwa Periods (1989-present): Global Domination

1980s-1990s: Video games

• Pokemon (1996) — Many creatures inspired by yokai
• Yo-kai Watch (2013) — Explicit yokai-catching game

2000s: Anime explosion

• Spirited Away (2001) — Studio Ghibli introduces yokai to global audiences
• Natsume's Book of Friends (2008)
• Mushishi (2005)
  

2010s-2020s: Social media age

• Japanese yokai trending on Instagram, TikTok
• Yokai aesthetic = "cottagecore," "dark academia"
• Western tattoo artists adopting yokai designs

Categories of Yokai: A Taxonomic Approach

Folklorists have attempted to classify yokai into categories:

1. ANIMAL YOKAI (Doubutsu-Kei)

Yokai based on real or mythical animals:

• Kitsune (fox)
• Tanuki (raccoon dog)
• Bakeneko (cat)
• Tengu (bird-human hybrid)
• Kappa (turtle-like water creature)

Kappa drawings from mid-19th century Suiko juni-hin no zu 水虎十二品之図 (Illustrated Guide to 12 Types of Kappa)

The Suiko juni-hin no zu (“Illustrated Guide to 12 Types of Kappa,” mid-19th century) presents these water-dwelling yōkai with the precision of a naturalist’s field study. Artists of the Edo period often approached mythical creatures much like biologists would approach real animals—cataloguing their anatomy, behaviors, and habitats as if compiling an illustrated bestiary of the unseen. This blend of folklore and observation gives the kappa and other animal yōkai, such as the kitsune or tanuki, a strangely scientific realism.

2. OBJECT YOKAI (Tsukumogami)

Household items that gain sentience after 100 years:

Kasa-obake (umbrella)

Chochin-obake (paper lantern)

Biwa-bokuboku (lute)

Kameosa (sake jar)

Woodblock print, A New Collection of Tsukumogami 新板化物つくし, 1860

3. HUMANOID YOKAI

Vaguely human in appearance:

• Oni (demons/ogres)
• Rokurokubi (long-necked woman)
• Futakuchi-onna (two-mouthed woman)
• Kuchisake-onna (slit-mouthed woman)

Kukai (Kobo Daishi) Practicing the Tantra, with a Demon (Oni) and Wolf, by Katsushika Hokusai

4. NATURE/ELEMENTAL YOKAI

Associated with natural phenomena:

• Kaze-no-kami (wind gods)
• Umi-bozu (sea monk)
• Yuki-onna (snow woman)
• Hinoenma (fire yokai)

Yuki-onna by Sawaki Suushi, from Hyakkai-Zukan, 1737

5. ABSTRACT/PHENOMENON YOKAI

Manifestations of concepts or unexplained events:

• Makuragaeshi (pillow-flipper)
• Nurikabe (wall-blocker)
• Betobetosan (footstep-follower)

Nurikabe (ぬりかべ), Bakemono no e (化物之繪, c. 1700) 

The Big Three: Most Dangerous Yokai in History

Japanese folklore recognizes Three Great Evil Yokai (日本三大悪妖怪):

1. SHUTEN-DOJI (酒呑童子) — The Drunken Demon

Shuten-doji, the King of Oni. Woodblock print by Yoshitoshi, 1887

Type: Oni (demon king) Active: Heian Period (10th-11th century) Location: Mount Ooe (大江山), Kyoto

The Legend: During Emperor Ichijō's reign (986-1011 CE), young noblewomen began disappearing from Kyoto. The court diviner Abe no Seimei discovered that Shuten-doji, the king of all oni, was abducting and devouring them.

Appearance:

• Over 15 feet tall
• Red skin covered in scales
• Five horns on his head
• Superhuman strength
• Could breathe fire
• Transform into handsome young man

Powers:

• Shape-shifting
• Commanded army of oni
• Immunity to most weapons
• Control over lesser demons

Defeat: The legendary warrior Minamoto no Raiko (948-1021) and his four companions infiltrated Shuten-doji's mountain fortress disguised as Buddhist monks. They poisoned the demon king with sake laced with神便鬼毒酒 (jinben kidoku-shu, "god-sent demon poison"), then beheaded him while he slept.

Even severed, Shuten-doji's head remained alive and attempted to bite Raiko. It took the power of a sacred helmet to finally end him.

2. TAMAMO-NO-MAE (玉藻前) — The Nine-Tailed Fox

Tamamo-no-Mae in human form. Woodblock print by Yoshitoshi

Type: Kitsune (fox yokai)

Active: Heian Period (12th century)

Location: Imperial Court, Kyoto

The Legend:

A beautiful woman named Tamamo-no-Mae appeared at the imperial court and quickly became the favorite of Emperor Toba (r. 1107-1123). But the emperor fell mysteriously ill, growing weaker each day.

The court diviner Abe no Yasuchika (descendant of the famous Abe no Seimei) discovered that Tamamo-no-Mae was actually a nine-tailed fox demon (九尾の狐, kyūbi no kitsune) who had been draining the emperor's life force.

True Form:

• White/golden fox with nine tails
• Each tail represents 100 years of power
• 900+ years old
• Eyes that glow red
• Can manipulate illusions

Historical Identities (according to legend):

• Daji — Evil consort who caused the fall of China's Shang Dynasty (1600 BCE)
• Lady Kayō — Concubine who nearly destroyed India's Magadha Kingdom
• Tamamo-no-Mae — Nearly killed Japan's emperor

Defeat: After her true form was revealed, Tamamo-no-Mae fled to the plains of Nasu. Warriors Miura-no-suke and Kazusa-no-suke hunted her down. Shot with sacred arrows, she transformed into the Sesshō-seki (殺生石, "Killing Stone"), a boulder that released poisonous gas, killing anything that approached.

The stone remained dangerous for 400 years until a Buddhist monk named Gennō finally exorcised it in 1385.

2022 Update: The Sessho-seki stone split in half in March 2022, leading to viral social media panic that Tamamo-no-Mae had been released!

3. EMPEROR SUTOKU (崇徳天皇) — The Vengeful Ghost Emperor

Emperor Sutoku in exile. Woodblock print by Yoshitoshi, 1885

Type: Onryo (vengeful spirit) Death: 1164 CE Location: Sanuki Province (modern Kagawa Prefecture)

The Tragic Story: Emperor Sutoku ruled Japan from 1123-1142, but was forced to abdicate by his own father (Emperor Toba) in favor of his younger brother. Humiliated, Sutoku became a monk.

 

In 1156, the Hōgen Rebellion erupted. Sutoku attempted to reclaim the throne but was defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province, a remote island where he lived in misery for 8 years until his death in 1164.

The Transformation: According to legend, Sutoku spent his exile copying Buddhist sutras in his own blood, which he intended to donate to temples in Kyoto as a gesture of repentance. But the imperial court, fearing a curse, refused to accept them.

Enraged, Sutoku:

• Bit off his own tongue
• Wrote a curse in blood
• Vowed to become a great demon (大天狗, daitengu)
• Swore to drag Japan into chaos

After death, he transformed into a powerful tengu yokai and was blamed for:

• The Genpei War (1180-1185) — Devastating civil war
• Natural disasters
• Political upheavals
• Any major calamity in Japan for 700+ years

Resolution: It took until 1868 (Meiji Restoration, 704 years after his death!) for Emperor Meiji to officially pardon Emperor Sutoku and built a shrine in his honor to appease his spirit.

ONI: The Iconic Japanese Demons

Sessen Dōji offering his life to an oni, by Soga Shōhaku, 1764.

What Are Oni?

Oni (鬼) are the most recognizable yokai, often translated as:

• Demons
• Ogres
• Trolls
• Devils

Standard Appearance:

• Hulking humanoid body — 8-15 feet tall, incredibly muscular
• Colored skin — Red (most common), blue, green, black, or yellow
• Horns — Usually two, sometimes one or three
• Fangs — Tiger-like teeth
• Wild hair — Often orange or white
• Minimal clothing — Tiger-skin loincloth (torafu)
• Weapon — Iron club with studs (kanabō, 金棒)

Why This Appearance?

The oni's look comes from Chinese cosmology:

Direction of Bad Luck: Northeast (艮, ushi-tora in Japanese)

• Ushi = Ox (丑, zodiac animal)
• Tora = Tiger (寅, zodiac animal)

Result: Oni have:

• Horns (from ox)
• Fangs and tiger-skin (from tiger)
• They emerge from the northeast direction (considered unlucky)

Types of Oni

1. Aka-Oni (赤鬼) — Red Oni

• Most common type
• Represents anger, violence
• Often guards Buddhist hell (Jigoku)

2. Ao-Oni (青鬼) — Blue/Green Oni

• Represents greed, jealousy
• Slightly less aggressive than red oni
• Often paired with red oni in stories

3. Oni Women (鬼女, Kijo)

• Female demons
• Often transformed from jealous or vengeful women
• Examples: Hannya masks in Noh theater

Oni in Culture

Setsubun Festival (February 3):

• Japanese people throw roasted soybeans at someone wearing an oni mask
• Shout "Oni wa soto! Fuku wa uchi!" (Demons out! Fortune in!)
• Believed to drive away evil spirits for the new year

Modern Usage:

• "Oni" used as slang for "incredible" or "intense"
• Example: 鬼やばい (oni yabai) = "insanely amazing"

KITSUNE: The Mystical Fox Spirits

New Year's Eve Foxfires at the Changing Tree, Ōji

What Are Kitsune?

Kitsune (狐, literally "fox") are intelligent fox yokai with magical powers that increase with age and wisdom.

Key Characteristics:

• Can live for centuries (potentially immortal)
• Grow additional tails as they age (up to 9)
• Master shape-shifters
• Can be benevolent or malevolent
• Associated with the Shinto god Inari

The Nine-Tail System

Kitsune gain tails as they age and grow in power:

Tails	Age	Power Level	Status
1	0-100 years	Novice	Common fox
2-3	100-300 years	Developing	Can transform
4-5	300-500 years	Skilled	Master illusions
6-7	500-700 years	Powerful	Control fire
8	700-900 years	Ancient	Near-divine
9	900+ years	Legendary	Tenko (天狐, celestial fox)

Nine-Tailed Fox (Kyūbi no kitsune, 九尾の狐):

• Pinnacle of kitsune evolution
• White or golden fur
• Godlike powers
• Can see and hear anything happening in the world
• Examples: Tamamo-no-Mae

Types of Kitsune

Zenko (善狐) — Good Foxes

• Serve the god Inari
• Protect humans
• Bring prosperity
• White or golden fur
• Found at Inari shrines nationwide

Yako (野狐) — Wild Foxes

• Mischievous or malevolent
• Play tricks on humans
• Can possess people (kitsunetsuki, 狐憑き)
  

• Often red or black fur

Kitsune Powers

Shape-Shifting:

• Primary ability
• Usually transform into beautiful women
• Sometimes young men or children
• Can also become inanimate objects

Illusions (Kitsune-bi, 狐火):

• Create fox-fire (magical flames)
• Generate elaborate illusions
• Make people see things that aren't there

Possession (Kitsunetsuki):

• Can possess humans
• Symptoms: Strange behavior, speaking in tongues, craving for red bean rice
• Requires exorcism to remove

Other Powers:

• Flight
• Invisibility
• Super speed
• Dream manipulation
• Weather control (advanced kitsune)

How to Identify a Disguised Kitsune

Kitsune have tells when in human form:

1. Shadow or reflection shows fox form
2. Fear of dogs (natural fox predator)
3. Elongated shadow (may have tail shadow)
4. Love of aburaage (fried tofu — favorite food)
5. Drunk people can see through disguise

Kitsune Marriages

Popular folklore theme: Kitsune falling in love with humans and marrying them in disguise.

Common story pattern:

1. Man saves/helps a fox
2. Beautiful woman appears and marries him
3. They have children together
4. His dog attacks her, revealing fox form
5. She must leave but promises to protect their children

Famous example: The legend of Kuzunoha (葛の葉), who married Abe no Yasuna and gave birth to the legendary diviner Abe no Seimei.

 

TENGU: Mountain Guardians with Long Nose

Tengu and a Buddhist monk, by Kawanabe Kyōsai. The tengu wears the cap and pom-pom sash of a follower of Shugendō.

What Are Tengu?

Tengu (天狗, literally "heavenly dog") are bird-like yokai that live in mountains and forests.

Evolution of Tengu:

Original (Nara Period, 710-794):

• Imported from Chinese Buddhism
• Depicted as evil spirits
• Enemies of Buddhism
• Caused natural disasters

Classical (Heian-Kamakura, 794-1333):

• Became more bird-like
• Associated with mountains
• Protectors of forests
• Skilled warriors

Modern (Edo Period onward, 1603-present):

• Guardians of mountains and martial arts
• Teachers of swordsmanship
• Tricksters but not necessarily evil

Types of Tengu

1. Daitengu (大天狗) — Great Tengu

• Humanoid appearance
• Long nose (defining feature, sometimes 1-2 feet long!)
• Red face
• White beard and hair
• Feathered fan (hauchiwa)
• Monk robes (often Buddhist priest attire)
• Small wings on back

Most famous Daitengu:

• Sōjōbō (僧正坊) — King of all tengu, lives on Mount Kurama
• Trained the legendary warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune

2. Karasuten (烏天狗) — Crow Tengu

Karasu-tengu by Toriyama Sekien

• More bird-like
• Crow/raven head with beak
• Black feathers
• Human body
• Large wings
• Clawed feet
• Lower rank than daitengu

Tengu Powers

• Flight — Natural ability
• Superhuman strength
• Martial arts mastery — Especially swordsmanship
• Shape-shifting
• Telepathy
• Teleportation
• Control of wind — Can create hurricanes with their fans
• Illusions

Tengu in Culture

Mount Takao (高尾山) near Tokyo:

• Sacred tengu mountain
• Yakuo-in temple dedicated to tengu worship
• Thousands of visitors annually seeking tengu blessings

Tengu Masks:

• Worn in festivals
• Distinctive long nose
• Hung in homes for protection

"Tengu ni Naru" (天狗になる):

• Japanese idiom meaning "to become conceited"
• Refers to tengu's reputation for arrogance
• Warning against excessive pride

KAPPA: The River-Dwelling Tricksters

"Keyamura Rokusuke" featuring kappa, in Utagawa Yoshikuni's Honchō kendō ryakuden (1843–1847)

What Are Kappa?

Kappa (河童, literally "river child") are water-dwelling yokai found throughout Japan.

Physical Description:

• Size: Child-sized (3-4 feet tall)
• Skin: Green, scaly, amphibian-like

• Shell: Turtle shell on back
• Head: Bowl-shaped depression (sara) on top filled with water
• Limbs: Webbed hands and feet
• Beak: Turtle-like mouth
• Smell: Like fish

The Critical Weakness: The water-filled depression on a kappa's head is its life source:

• If the water spills out, the kappa loses all power
• May die if the water is completely emptied
• Must return to water to refill

Kappa Behavior

Mischievous Acts:

• Look up women's kimonos
• Fart loudly

• Steal crops (especially cucumbers)
• Challenge people to sumo wrestling
• Make loud noises to scare travelers

Dangerous Acts:

• Drown humans (especially children)
• Pull people into water by their "shirikodama" (mythical organ)
• Attack horses and cows near water
• Cause floods

Positive Traits:

• Keep promises faithfully
• Can be befriended
• Knowledge of medicine and bone-setting
• Will help humans who show them kindness

How to Defeat a Kappa

Method 1: The Bow Trick

• Bow deeply to a kappa
• Kappa, being polite, will bow back
• Water spills from head depression
• Kappa loses power

Method 2: Offer Cucumber

• Kappa's favorite food
• Write family name on cucumber
• Throw into water
• Kappa will spare that family

Method 3: Sumo Wrestling

• Challenge kappa to sumo
• Pull its arm off (they're loosely attached)
• Kappa will grant wishes for arm's return
• Or...  try some farts !

Trick the trickster : Repelling ''kappa'' with a fart. 1881. By Yoshitoshi.

Kappa in Modern Japan

Warning Signs:

• Many rivers have "Beware of Kappa" signs
• Originally to warn children not to swim unsupervised
• Now tourist attractions

Kappa-maki (かっぱ巻き):

• Cucumber sushi roll
• Named after kappa's love of cucumbers

Corporate Mascot:

• Kappa is logo of Japanese brewery Kizakura Sake

TSUKUMOGAMI: When Objects Come Alive

Tsukumogami (付喪神, artifact spirits) from the Hyakki-Yagyō-Emaki (百鬼夜行絵巻, the picture scroll of the demons' night parade

What Are Tsukumogami?

Tsukumogami (付喪神) are objects that gain sentience after existing for 100 years.

Etymology:

• 付喪 (tsukumo) = "99 years"
• 神 (kami) = "god/spirit"
• Literally "99-year-old gods"

The Philosophy: Based on Buddhist/Shinto beliefs that:

• All things contain spirit/essence
• Objects used with care develop souls
• Discarded objects can become vengeful
• Respect for possessions prevents transformation

Types of Tsukumogami

Household Items

KASA-OBAKE (傘お化け) — Umbrella Yokai

• Old umbrella with one eye, long tongue
• One or two legs
• Hops around startling people
• Harmless prankster

CHOCHIN-OBAKE (提灯お化け) — Lantern Yokai

Oiwa-san from the One Hundred Ghost Stories by Katsushika Hokusai

• Paper lantern with face
• Long tongue hanging out
• One or two eyes
• Floats through the air

BAKEZORI (化け草履) — Straw Sandal Yokai

• Animated sandals
• Run around causing mischief
• Sing annoying songs at night

Musical Instruments

BIWA-BOKUBOKU (琵琶牧々) — Lute Yokai

• Animated Japanese lute
• Plays music on its own
• Usually benign

KOTO-FURUNUSHI (琴古主) — Koto Yokai

• Animated Japanese harp
• Can entrance listeners with music

Kitchen Items

KAMEOSA (瓶長) — Sake Jar Yokai

• Old sake jug with arms and legs
• Friendly, enjoys drinking
• Brings good fortune to sake brewers

Why Tsukumogami Exist: A Moral Lesson

The tsukumogami concept teaches:

1. Respect possessions — Don't waste or discard thoughtlessly
2. Sustainability — Repair rather than replace
3. Gratitude — Appreciate objects that serve you
4. Mindfulness — Everything has value and spirit

Hari Kuyo (針供養):

• Annual Buddhist festival (February 8)
• People thank old sewing needles for their service
• Stick them in soft tofu or konnyaku
• Pray for the needles' souls

• Then ceremonially dispose of them

This prevents the needles from becoming vengeful tsukumogami!

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YUREI: Japanese Ghosts vs Yokai

Yūrei, Bakemono no e scroll, Brigham Young University

What Are Yurei?

Yurei (幽霊) are ghosts of deceased humans who cannot pass on to the afterlife.

Key Differences: Yurei vs Yokai

Feature	Yurei	Yokai
Origin	Dead humans	Never human (or transformed objects)
Purpose	Fulfill unfinished business	Exist naturally in spirit realm
Appearance	White burial kimono, long black hair	Varies widely
Legs	Usually no legs (floating)	Usually has legs
Can be exorcised?	Yes, by resolving their grudge	No, they're not "cursed"
Emotion	Driven by strong emotion	Various personalities

Classic Yurei Appearance

Standard yurei look (established in Edo Period theater):

• White kimono (kyōkatabira, 経帷子) — Burial garment
• Long, disheveled black hair covering face
• No feet or legs — Float/drift
• Pale, deathly skin
• Hands drooping at unusual angles
• Hitodama (人魂) — Floating spirits/souls (blue-white flames) following them

Types of Yurei

1. ONRYO (怨霊) — Vengeful Ghosts

Most dangerous type. Died with intense grudge.

Famous Examples:

• Oiwa — Betrayed wife seeking revenge (featured in Yotsuya Kaidan)
• Okiku — Servant girl murdered by master, counts plates eternally
• Sugawara no Michizane — Became Tenjin, god of learning, after death

Characteristics:

• Cause disasters, illness, death
• Target those who wronged them
• Extremely difficult to exorcise
• Can curse entire family lines

2. UBUME (産女) — Birthing Ghosts

Women who died in childbirth or while pregnant.

Behavior:

• Appear carrying a baby
• Ask strangers to hold the baby
• Baby becomes heavier and heavier (stone weight)
• If you can bear the weight until dawn, you gain supernatural strength

Motivation:

• Desperate to save their unborn/newborn child
• Cannot rest until child is safe

3. FUNAYUREI (船幽霊) — Ship Ghosts

Ghosts of people who drowned at sea.

Behavior:

• Emerge from water asking for ladles

• If given ladle, will sink the ship by filling it with water
• Defense: Give them a ladle with NO BOTTOM

4. ZASHIKI-WARASHI (座敷童子) — Child Spirit

Not technically yurei, but spirit of children.

Characteristics:

• Appear as young children
• Bring good fortune to household
• Mischievous but benevolent
• If they leave a house, the family's fortune leaves too

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Lesser-Known but Fascinating Yokai

NURIKABE (ぬりかべ) — The Wall Blocker

What it does:

• Manifests as invisible wall on dark roads
• Travelers walk forward but cannot progress
• Can waste hours walking in place

Appearance:

• Usually invisible
• Sometimes appears as large wall with eyes
• Modern depictions (via GeGeGe no Kitaro): Cute white wall with legs

How to defeat:

• Hit the bottom of the "wall" with a stick
• It will disappear

MAKURAGAESHI (枕返し) — The Pillow Flipper

What it does:

• Enters bedrooms at night
• Flips sleeping person's pillow 180 degrees
• Person wakes with head at foot of bed

Origin:

• Created by Toriyama Sekien
• Depicts anxiety about vulnerable sleep state
• Metaphor for restless nights

Appearance:

• Small, childlike figure
• Wears priest's robes
• Carries staff

BETOBETO-SAN (べとべとさん) — The Footstep Follower

What it does:

• Follows people walking alone at night
• Makes footstep sounds (beto-beto-beto)
• Never visible

• Gets closer and closer

How to stop it:

• Step to the side of the path
• Say "Betobeto-san, please go ahead" (Betobeto-san, osaki ni dōzo)
• Footsteps will pass and disappear

Meaning:

• Manifestation of paranoia
• Fear of being followed in the dark

NOPPERA-BO (のっぺら坊) — The Faceless Ghost

What it does:

• Appears as normal person
• When victim looks closely... NO FACE
• Smooth skin where features should be
• Usually disappears after scaring victim

Classic Story Pattern:

1. Traveler meets someone who seems distressed
2. Person says they saw something scary
3. Traveler asks what happened
4. Person turns around... no face!
5. Traveler runs away in terror
6. Meets another person who offers help
7. That person also has no face!

Not Actually Dangerous:

• Just wants to scare people
• Prankster yokai
• No records of physical harm

AME-ONNA (雨女) — Rain Woman

What it is:

• Female yokai who brings rain
• Appears licking raindrops
• Sometimes described as licking blood

Modern Usage:

• "Ame-onna" = Woman whose presence causes rain
• Used jokingly: "Don't invite Tanaka-san, she's an ame-onna!"
• Opposite: Hare-otoko (晴れ男, "sunshine man")

GASHADOKURO (がしゃどくろ) — The Starving Skeleton

Triptych of Takiyasha the Witch and the Skeleton Spectre, c. 1844, Utagawa Kuniyoshi 

What it is:

• Giant skeleton, 15 times human size
• Formed from bones of people who died of starvation
• Wanders at night making "gachi-gachi" sounds
• Grabs and bites off victims' heads

Origin:

• Born from mass starvation deaths
• Battlefield casualties left unburied

• Famine victims
• Contains accumulated grudges of the starved

Cannot be killed:

• Indestructible until its hatred dissipates
• Must wait until the grudge naturally fades (decades or centuries)

Warning Sound:

• Ringing in ears (mimitanari, 耳鳴り)
• Sign gashadokuro is nearby

JORŌGUMO (絡新婦) — The Spider Woman

What it is:

• 400-year-old spider that can transform into beautiful woman
• Lures men to her lair
• Binds them in spider silk
• Devours them slowly

Appearance as human:

• Stunning young woman
• Often plays biwa (Japanese lute)
• May have spider-like shadow
• Sometimes lower body is spider

Famous Legend: At Jōren Falls (静岡県), a jorōgumo lived for centuries. A woodcutter discovered her lair filled with drained bodies wrapped in silk. She tried to trap him but he escaped and reported to authorities. Buddhist monks exorcised her.

Modern Depictions:

• Appears in countless anime/manga
• Naruto, Tokyo Ghoul, Hell Girl
• Usually portrayed as tragic figure
• "Monster that wanted to be loved"

KUCHISAKE-ONNA (口裂け女) — The Slit-Mouthed Woman

Type: Modern yokai (1979)

Appearance:

• Beautiful woman wearing surgical mask
• Long coat
• Carries scissors or knife
• When mask removed: Mouth slit ear-to-ear

What she does:

1. Approaches victims (usually children)
2. Asks: "Am I beautiful?" (Watashi, kirei?)
3. If you say "No" → Kills you with scissors
4. If you say "Yes" → Removes mask
5. Asks again: "How about now?" (Kore demo?)
6. If you say "No" → Kills you
7. If you say "Yes" → Cuts your mouth to match hers

How to escape:

• Answer "You're average" (confuses her)
• Throw candy/fruit at her (she'll stop to pick it up)
• Say "pomade" three times (unknown reason, but supposedly works)

1979 Panic:

• Rumors spread across Japan
• Schools sent children home early
• Police increased patrols
• Mass hysteria documented
• No actual attacks ever confirmed

Origin Theory:

• Woman disfigured by jealous husband
• Escaped mental patient
• Victim of botched plastic surgery
• Modern urban legend yokai

Yokai in Modern Culture: Anime, Games & Beyond

Studio Ghibli's Yokai

Spirited Away (千と千尋の神隠し, 2001):

• Most successful yokai film ever ($395M worldwide)
• Features dozens of yokai:
  • Kamaji — Spider-limbed boiler man (tsuchigumo-inspired)
  • Yubaba — Mountain witch (yamauba-inspired)
  • No-Face (Kaonashi) — Original yokai created by Miyazaki
  • Radish Spirit — Daikon yokai
  • River Spirit — Polluted river god

• • Kasuga-sama — Chicken-leg spirit

Princess Mononoke (もののけ姫, 1997):

• Title literally means "Spirit Princess"
• Features kodama (wood spirits), animal gods

Pom Poko (平成狸合戦ぽんぽこ, 1994):

• Entirely about tanuki (raccoon dog yokai)
• Shapeshifting, tanuki-bayashi (belly drumming)
• Environmental message

Video Games

Pokémon (1996-present): Dozens of Pokémon based on yokai:

• Ninetales ← Kyūbi no kitsune (nine-tailed fox)
• Shuppet/Banette ← Tsukumogami

• Froslass ← Yuki-onna
• Drifloon ← Chochin-obake
• Mimikyu ← Cloth yokai

Yo-kai Watch (2013-present):

• Explicit yokai-catching game
• 600+ yokai to collect
• Massive success in Japan (rivaled Pokémon)
• Each yokai based on real folklore

Okami (2006):

• Play as Amaterasu (sun goddess)
• Fights yokai across mythological Japan
• Beautiful ukiyo-e art style

Nioh (2017) & Nioh 2 (2020):

• Dark Souls-style games

• Fight famous yokai bosses
• Authentic folklore research

Ghost of Tsushima (2020):

• Features yokai in side quests
• Respectful cultural representation

Anime & Manga

GeGeGe no Kitaro (ゲゲゲの鬼太郎, 1960s-present):

• Created by Shigeru Mizuki
• Single most influential yokai work of 20th century
• Introduced friendly yokai concept
• Multiple anime adaptations
• Created many "new traditional" yokai

Natsume's Book of Friends (夏目友人帳, 2008-present):

• Slice-of-life yokai stories
• Protagonist inherits book of yokai names
• Gentle, melancholic tone
• Beautifully animated

Mushishi (蟲師, 2005):

• Deals with mushi (primitive life forms)
• Similar concept to yokai
• Philosophical, atmospheric
• Critically acclaimed

Toilet-Bound Hanako-kun (地縛少年花子くん, 2020):

• Modern school setting
• Seven school mysteries
• Mixes traditional yokai with urban legends

Western Adoption

Tattoos:

• Yokai increasingly popular in Western tattoo culture
• Kitsune, oni, hannya masks most common
• Often mixed with traditional Japanese irezumi style

Fashion:

• Yokai motifs in streetwear
• Japanese brands: BAPE, Undercover, Neighborhood
• Western brands adopting yokai imagery

Literature:

• The Night Parade by Kathryn Tanquary (2016)
• The Girl from the Well by Rin Chupeco (2014)
• Increasing number of yokai-inspired Western fantasy

How to Protect Yourself from Yokai

Traditional Methods

1. Salt (塩, Shio)

Most powerful yokai repellent:

• Scatter at doorways and thresholds
• Carry small pouch of salt
• Used in Shinto purification rituals (misogi)
• Sumo wrestlers throw salt before matches

2. O-fuda (御札) — Sacred Talismans

Paper talismans from Shinto shrines:

• Inscribed with protective prayers
• Hang above doorways
• Must be replaced annually
• Different shrines specialize in different protections

3. Omamori (お守り) — Amulets

Small brocade bags containing prayers:

• Carry in purse/pocket
• Hang in car
• Various types: health, safety, love, etc.
• Purchase at shrines/temples

Buddhist Sutras

Reciting Buddhist texts:

• Heart Sutra (般若心経, Hannya Shingyō) most powerful
• Written sutras can be worn as protection
• Monks perform exorcism rituals

5. Iron

Many yokai fear iron:

• Carry iron nails or coins
• Iron kettles in home provide protection
• Samurai swords (iron/steel) ward off spirits

6. Mirrors

• Yokai cannot approach mirrors (see their true form)
• Kagami (鏡) historically sacred objects

• Hang near entrances

7. Dogs

• Natural yokai detectors and repellents
• Can see through kitsune disguises
• Loyal dogs protect from evil spirits

Behavioral Guidelines

DO:

• Be respectful in nature (forests, rivers, mountains)
• Thank objects before discarding them
• Maintain cleanliness (yokai attracted to mess)
• Stay calm if you encounter yokai
• Follow local customs and taboos

DON'T:

• Urinate on trees or rocks (may anger nature spirits)

• Whistle at night (attracts yokai)
• Look at mirrors at night (may see yokai)
• Answer strange voices calling your name
• Pick up money/objects on the ground (may be bait)

Modern "Protections"

Technology Can't Help:

• Cameras often fail to capture yokai
• Electronics malfunction in heavy yokai presence
• GPS gets confused (nurikabe effect)

But Science Explains Some:

• Fox-fire (Kitsune-bi) — Likely marsh gas (methane) igniting
• Ghostly apparitions — Sleep paralysis, kanashibari (金縛り)

• Mysterious sounds — Wind, animals, structure settling
• Missing time — Dissociative states

The Folk Wisdom: Even if you don't believe in yokai, following the traditional protections teaches:

• Respect for nature
• Mindfulness
• Community cohesion
• Cultural continuity

The Complete Yokai Bestiary A-Z

A

ABUMI-GUCHI (鐙口)

• Animated stirrup
• Made from stirrup of horse killed in battle
• Covered in horse hair
• Makes horse sounds

ABURA-AKAGO (油赤子)

• Oil baby
• Steals oil from lamps
• Created from spirit of oil thief
• Appears as baby licking oil

AKANAME (垢嘗)

• Filth licker
• Licks grime from dirty bathrooms
• Long tongue
• Prevents disease by cleaning (unintentionally helpful!)

AKASHITA (赤舌)

• Red tongue
• Appears in clouds during storms
• Giant red tongue in the sky
• Bad omen

AMANOJAKU (天邪鬼)

• Contrary demon
• Compels people to do opposite of what they intend
• Small oni
• Symbol of rebellious nature

AOBŌZU (青坊主)

• Blue monk
• One-eyed monk yokai
• Blue skin
• Appears in wheat/barley fields
• Punishes those who trample crops

B

BAKENEKO (化け猫)

• Monster cat
• Cat that lived 13+ years or has tail cut off grows split tail
• Can shape-shift into humans
• Speaks human language
• Sometimes dances wearing towel on head
• Can reanimate dead bodies by jumping over them

BAKU (獏)

• Dream eater
• Elephant/tapir-like creature
• Eats nightmares
• People invoke baku after bad dreams
• Say "Baku-san, devour my dream" three times
• Actually benevolent yokai

BAKEZŌRI (化け草履)

• Mentioned earlier (tsukumogami)
• Animated straw sandals

BETOBETO-SAN (べとべとさん)

• Mentioned earlier (footstep follower)

BINBŌGAMI (貧乏神)

• God of poverty
• Brings misfortune and financial ruin
• Appears as dirty old man
• Difficult to remove once attached to household
• Opposite of Fukujin (gods of fortune)

C

CHŌCHIN-OBAKE (提灯お化け)

• Mentioned earlier (lantern yokai)

D

DAIDARABOTCHI (だいだらぼっち)

• Giant yokai
• As tall as mountains
• Creates landscape features by accident

• Footprints become lakes
• Dragged earth creating valleys
• Generally harmless despite size

DOROTABŌ (泥田坊)

• Mud field spirit
• One-eyed yokai emerging from rice paddies
• Represents ghosts of farmers
• Cries "Give me back my rice field!"
• Appears in fields sold or neglected by heirs

F

FUNA-YŪREI (船幽霊)

• Mentioned earlier (ship ghosts)

FUTAKUCHI-ONNA (二口女)

• Two-mouthed woman
• Appears normal from front
• Back of head has second mouth in hair
• Second mouth speaks and eats
• Origin: Stingy woman who starved stepchild

G

GASHADOKURO (がしゃどくろ)

• Mentioned earlier (giant skeleton)

GORYŌ (御霊)

• Vengeful spirit of noble
• Similar to onryō but specifically aristocratic
• Can cause plagues, earthquakes, disasters
• Requires grand shrines to appease

H

HANNYA (般若)

• Demon mask used in Noh theater
• Represents jealous female demon
• Two sharp horns
• Leering smile
• Metallic eyes
• Represents transformation of jealous woman into demon

HARADASHI (腹出し)

• Belly-shower yokai
• Sumo wrestler-like figure
• Shows belly to passersby
• Belly covered in eyes
• Harmless but disturbing

HITOTSUME-KOZŌ (一つ目小僧)

• One-eyed boy monk
• Cyclops-like yokai
• Bald head
• Single large eye
• Wears monk's robes
• Peeks into houses
• Mostly harmless prankster

HYŌSUBE (ひょうすべ)

• Kappa variant from Kyushu
• Similar to kappa but hairier
• Helps with farming (beneficial)
• Eats eggplants
• Can grant wishes

I

IKIRYO (生霊)

• Living spirit
• Spirit projection of living person
• Created by intense emotion (usually jealousy)
• Can attack target while body sleeps
• Famous example: Lady Rokujo in Tale of Genji

INUGAMI (犬神)

• Dog god/spirit
• Created through horrific ritual (starving dog)
• Serves sorcerer family
• Can possess enemies
• Passed down through family lines

ITSUMADE (以津真天)

• Bird yokai with human face
• Appears during times of plague/famine
• Flies crying "itsumade?" (how long?)
• Massive wingspan
• Terrifying shriek

J

JORŌGUMO (絡新婦)

• Mentioned earlier (spider woman)

JUBOKKO (樹木子)

• Vampire tree
• Grows on battlefields
• Feeds on blood of fallen soldiers
• If cut, bleeds instead of sap
• Can capture passersby with branches

K

KAINADE (かいなで)

• Wall-caressing hand
• Hairy hand emerges from ceiling
• Strokes people's hair at night
• Creepy but harmless

KAMAITACHI (鎌鼬)

• Sickle weasel
• Travels in whirlwinds
• Cuts people with sickle-like claws
• Wounds are painless and bloodless at first
• Trio of weasels: first knocks down, second cuts, third applies medicine

KAMEOSA (瓶長)

• Mentioned earlier (sake jar yokai)

KAPPA (河童)

• Covered extensively earlier

KASA-OBAKE (傘お化け)

• Mentioned earlier (umbrella yokai)

KEUKEGEN (毛羽毛現)

• Hair disease creature
• Made entirely of matted hair
• Lives in dirty, unkempt houses
• Brings disease
• Cleans house to remove it

KIJO (鬼女)

• Demon woman
• Female oni
• Often transformed from jealous/vengeful women

• Horns, fangs, wild appearance

KITSUNE (狐)

• Covered extensively earlier

KODAMA (木霊)

• Tree spirit
• Inhabits old trees
• Appears as small glowing orbs
• Echo in mountains (kodama) attributed to them
• Cutting tree with kodama brings curse

KONAKI-JIJI (子泣き爺)

• Old man who cries like baby
• Appears as abandoned baby
• When picked up, transforms to heavy old man
• Increases weight until victim crushed

• Can grant strength if endured

KOTO-FURUNUSHI (琴古主)

• Mentioned earlier (koto yokai)

KUCHISAKE-ONNA (口裂け女)

• Covered earlier (slit-mouthed woman)

M

MAKURAGAESHI (枕返し)

• Covered earlier (pillow flipper)

MIKOSHI-NYŪDŌ (見越し入道)

• Appearing monk
• When you look up, keeps growing taller
• Head always appears just above your sight line
• If you look away, it disappears
• If you look at feet first, it vanishes

MUJINA (狢)

• Badger or raccon dog yokai
• Famous for noppera-bo story
• Shape-shifter
• Often confused with tanuki

N

NAMAZU (鯰)

• Giant catfish
• Lives beneath Japan
• Causes earthquakes when thrashing
• Restrained by god Takemikazuchi with stone
• When stone shifts, earthquakes occur

NEKOMATA (猫又)

• Advanced bakeneko

• Cat with forked tail
• Lives in mountains
• Can control dead
• Walks on hind legs
• Wears clothes

NINGYO (人魚)

• Mermaid/merman
• Fish with human face (not attractive)
• Eating its flesh grants immortality/longevity
• Catching one brings storms and misfortune
• Different from Western mermaids

NOBUSUMA (野衾)

• Flying squirrel yokai
• Vampire-like creature

• Swoops down to bite necks
• Drains blood
• Looks like large flying squirrel

NOPPERABŌ (のっぺらぼう)

• Covered earlier (faceless ghost)

NOPPERA-BŌ — See Nopperabō

NŪBŌ (ぬうぼう)

• Appears in flames
• Face emerging from fire
• Licks ceiling and walls
• Harmless but frightening

NURE-ONNA (濡女)

• Wet woman
• Snake body with woman's head

• Long wet black hair
• Lives in water
• Hands victims heavy baby that increases weight
• Drowns victim or drains blood

NURIKABE (ぬりかべ)

• Covered earlier (wall blocker)

O

OBARIYON (おばりよん)

• Piggyback yokai
• Jumps on backs of travelers
• Increases weight progressively
• If carried to destination, turns to gold
• Reward for perseverance

ONI (鬼)

• Covered extensively earlier

ONRYŌ (怨霊)

• Covered earlier (vengeful spirit)

ŌKUBI (大首)

• Giant floating head
• Appears in clouds or sky
• Woman's head
• Several stories tall
• Unknown purpose

ŌNYŪDŌ (大入道)

• Giant monk
• Towering monk yokai
• Blocks roads
• Grows when looked at
• Shrinks if you look away

R

RAIJŪ (雷獣)

• Thunder beast
• Companion of thunder god Raijin
• Looks like weasel, cat, or monkey
• Falls to earth with lightning
• Scratches trees
• Burrows into human navels (hide in thunderstorms!)

ROKUROKUBI (ろくろ首)

• Long-necked woman
• Appears normal by day
• At night, neck stretches impossibly long
• Head detaches and flies around
• Peek in windows

• Drink lamp oil
• Usually unaware of their condition

S

SAMEBITO (鮫人)

• Shark man
• Fish-like humanoid
• Cries tears that become jewels
• Generally peaceful
• Associated with Ryūjin (dragon god of sea)

SATORI (覚)

• Mind-reading yokai
• Monkey-like appearance
• Can read thoughts perfectly
• Speaks your thoughts aloud

• Only way to defeat: Empty your mind

SHIKIGAMI (式神)

• Servant spirit
• Summoned by onmyoji (Yin-Yang masters)
• Can take various forms
• Performs tasks for summoner
• Famous user: Abe no Seimei

SHIRIME (尻目)

• Butt-eye yokai
• Appears as normal person
• When victim approaches, bends over
• Has giant eye where anus should be
• Runs away after shocking victim
• Created as comedy yokai by Toriyama Sekien

SHIRO-UNERI (白うねり)

• White serpent yokai
• Giant white snake
• Appears in old castles/mansions
• Embodies neglected or demolished buildings

SHŌJŌ (猩々)

• Red-haired sake-loving spirit
• Drinks endlessly without getting drunk
• Red face and hair
• Lives near sea
• Benevolent yokai

SHUTEN-DŌJI (酒呑童子)

• Covered earlier (drunken demon)

T

TAMAMO-NO-MAE (玉藻前)

• Covered earlier (nine-tailed fox)

TANUKI (狸)

• Raccoon dog yokai
• Shape-shifter (less powerful than kitsune)
• Associated with Buddhism (wear monk robes)
• Large testicles (symbol of good fortune)
• Can transform leaves into money
• Drum on belly (tanuki-bayashi)
• Trickster but usually harmless/comedic

TEKE TEKE (テケテケ)

• Modern urban legend yokai
• Woman cut in half by train
• Drags upper body with arms
• Makes "teke teke" sound on pavement
• Extremely fast
• Kills victims by cutting them in half

TENGU (天狗)

• Covered extensively earlier

TESSO (鉄鼠)

• Iron rat
• Vengeful spirit of priest
• Commands army of rats
• Gnaws through anything (even iron)
• Destroyed Imperial library
• Associated with Enryaku-ji temple

TSUCHIGUMO (土蜘蛛)

• Ground spider
• Giant spider yokai
• Lives in caves or abandoned buildings
• Traps humans in webs
• Can transform into beautiful woman
• Fought by legendary hero Minamoto no Raikō

TSUKUMOGAMI (付喪神)

• Covered earlier (object yokai)

TSURUBE-OTOSHI (つるべ落とし)

• Bucket-dropping yokai
• Drops from trees onto travelers' heads
• Looks like old man's head
• Makes loud noise

• Startles but usually doesn't harm

U

UBUME (産女)

• Covered earlier (birthing ghost)

UMI-BŌZU (海坊主)

• Sea monk
• Giant black humanoid emerging from sea
• Bald head like monk
• Appears in calm seas
• Capsizes ships
• Asks sailors for barrel
• If given barrel, fills ship with water

UNGAIKYŌ (雲外鏡)

• Cloud mirror
• Mirror tsukumogami
• Floats in sky
• Shows true nature of things
• Can trap souls

USHI-ONI (牛鬼)

• Ox demon
• Ox head with spider or crab body
• Extremely aggressive
• Lives near water
• Venomous
• Nearly unstoppable
• Regional variations across Japan

W

WANI (鰐)

• Not crocodile but sea monster/dragon
• Ancient Japanese dragon-serpent

• Different from Chinese dragons
• Associated with imperial mythology

WANYŪDŌ (輪入道)

• Wheel monk
• Burning ox-cart wheel with man's face in center
• Face of tormented monk
• Guards gates of hell
• Steals souls of wicked
• Makes terrible shrieking sound

Y

YAMA-UBA (山姥)

• Mountain witch/hag
• Lives deep in mountains
• Cannibalistic

• Can shape-shift into beautiful woman
• Wild white hair
• Sometimes nurturing (raised hero Kintarō)
• Ambiguous: both helpful and dangerous

YANARI (家鳴)

• House-shaking yokai
• Causes creaking sounds in houses
• Makes rafters groan
• No physical form
• Manifestation of house settling
• Sign house is getting old

YATAGARASU (八咫烏)

• Three-legged crow
• Divine messenger

• Guided first emperor
• Symbol of sun goddess Amaterasu
• Benevolent yokai/god
• Appears in mythology
• Symbol of Japanese Soccer Association

YOBUKO (呼子)

• Voice yokai
• Calls people's names in mountains
• If you respond, you may get lost
• Mountain echo phenomenon
• Never answer unknown voices calling your name

YOSUZUME (夜雀)

• Night sparrow
• Flocks of sparrows flying at night

• Make chirping sounds
• Actually souls of dead
• Bad omen

YOTSUYA KAIDAN (四谷怪談)

• Not a yokai but famous ghost story
• Oiwa's ghost (most famous onryō)
• Story of betrayed wife
• Still performed in kabuki
• Considered cursed play

YUKI-ONNA (雪女)

• Snow woman
• Appears in snowstorms
• Pale white skin
• Long black hair
• White kimono

• Breathes freezing breath
• Freezes victims to death
• Sometimes spares victims who show kindness

YUKI-WARASHI (雪童子)

• Snow child
• Child spirit appearing in snow
• Playful
• Leads travelers astray
• Can freeze victims
• Sometimes appears with Yuki-onna

YUKINKO (雪ん子)

• Snow child (Niigata region variant)
• Appears as child in snowstorm
• Asks to be carried

• Becomes heavier
• Eventually crushes victim

Z

ZASHIKI-WARASHI (座敷童子)

• Covered earlier (child spirit that brings fortune)

ZUNBERA-BŌ (ずんべら坊)

• Faceless monk variant
• Similar to noppera-bō
• Regional variation

---

Epilogue: Why Yokai Still Matter in 2025

The Psychology of Yokai

Modern psychologists and anthropologists recognize that yokai served crucial functions :

The Psychology of Yokai

Modern psychologists and anthropologists recognize that yokai served crucial functions:

1. Explaining the Unexplainable

• Before modern science, yokai explained natural phenomena
• Disease = caused by yokai
• Strange sounds = yokai activity
• Missing items = stolen by yokai
• Gave order to chaos

2. Teaching Social Norms

• Kappa legends kept children away from dangerous rivers
• Yama-uba stories warned against wandering into mountains

• Tsukumogami taught respect for possessions
• Moral lessons wrapped in supernatural stories

3. Processing Trauma

• Onryō represented unprocessed grief and injustice
• Natural disasters personified as yokai made them comprehensible
• Gave agency to victims (revenge through haunting)

4. Maintaining Environmental Respect

• Yokai punished those who harmed nature
• Protected sacred spaces (mountains, forests, rivers)
• Enforced sustainable resource use
• Pre-modern environmentalism

5. Social Cohesion

• Shared beliefs created community bonds
• Festivals and rituals brought people together
• Regional yokai created local identity
• Oral tradition maintained through yokai stories

Yokai in the Digital Age

Why Yokai Resonate Today:

1. Antidote to Hyper-Rationality

• Modern life is overly quantified, measured, explained
• Yokai represent the unknowable, the mysterious

• Remind us that not everything can be understood
• Provide comfort in uncertainty

2. Environmental Metaphor

• Climate change = angry nature spirits
• Pollution = corruption of natural yokai
• Extinct species = disappeared yokai
• Yokai stories encode ecological wisdom

3. Mental Health Framework

• Depression = visited by depressive yokai
• Anxiety = followed by anxiety spirits
• Provides culturally-appropriate mental health language
• Less stigmatizing than Western psychiatric terms

Aesthetic Movement

• "Dark academia" + Japanese folklore = perfect combo
• Instagram-friendly (mysterious, aesthetic, nostalgic)
• Cottagecore overlap (nature spirits, rural settings)
• Provides alternative to dominant Western aesthetics

5. Gaming & Entertainment

• Perfect for game mechanics (catch, battle, collect)
• Rich lore for storytelling
• Diverse designs for character creation
• Multigenerational appeal

The Academic Study of Yokai

Yokaiology (妖怪学, Yōkaigaku) is now a legitimate academic field:

International Research Center for Japanese Studies (Kyoto):

• Dedicated yokai research department
• Digital archives of yokai literature
• International yokai symposiums

Universities Offering Yokai Courses:

• Tezukayama University (Nara) — Yokai culture course
• Waseda University (Tokyo) — Japanese folklore with yokai focus
• University of Oregon (USA) — Japanese supernatural beliefs
• SOAS University of London (UK) — Japanese religious studies

Major Scholars:

• Michael Dylan Foster (UC Davis) — Leading Western yokai scholar
• Komatsu Kazuhiko (International Research Center) — Preeminent Japanese yokai expert
• Reider Noriko (Miami University) — Yokai literature specialist

Preserving Yokai Heritage

Yokai Museums:

Mizuki Shigeru Museum (Sakaiminato, Tottori):

• Dedicated to GeGeGe no Kitaro creator
• Extensive yokai exhibits
• Entire town themed around yokai
• 100+ yokai bronze statues lining streets

Yōkai Museum (Miyoshi, Hiroshima):

• Collection of yokai artifacts
• Regional yokai focus
• Preservation of local folklore

Yokai Festivals:

• Hyakki Yagyō Festival (Various cities) — Night parade recreation
• Setsubun (February 3 nationwide) — Bean-throwing to expel oni
• Tōrō Nagashi (August, various) — Floating lanterns for spirits

The Future of Yokai

Predictions for 2025-2050:

1. VR/AR Yokai Experiences

• Pokemon GO-style yokai hunting
• Virtual yokai tourism in Japan

• AR filters bringing yokai to life
• Immersive yokai horror experiences

2. AI-Generated Yokai

• Machine learning creating new yokai from descriptions
• Personalized yokai based on user data
• Interactive yokai chatbots
• But will lack the ma (間, meaningful emptiness) of traditional art

3. Global Yokai Adaptations

• Western creators reimagining yokai
• Fusion with local folklore worldwide
• Risk of cultural appropriation vs appreciation debate
• Need for respectful representation

Climate Change Yokai

• New yokai emerging to explain environmental disasters
• Revival of nature-protective yokai worship
• Yokai as eco-activism symbols
• Modern folklore evolving in real-time

5. Yokai as Mental Health Tools

• Therapeutic use of yokai metaphors
• Gamification of mental health treatment
• Cultural bridge for Asian diaspora mental health
• Less stigmatizing framework for discussing struggles

The Paradox of Belief

Do Japanese People Believe in Yokai?

Complex answer:

• Literally? Mostly no. (Especially urban, educated populations)
• Culturally? Absolutely. (Part of identity, tradition, aesthetics)
• Functionally? Sometimes. (Still influences behavior, design, language)
• Emotionally? Often. (That feeling when alone at night...)

"Believing Without Believing":

• Philosopher Yanagita Kunio (1875-1962) described this state
• Not literal belief, but cultural relationship
• Similar to how Christians view Satan (symbol vs literal being)
• Yokai exist in the space between belief and metaphor

Final Thoughts: The Wisdom of Yokai

What yokai teach us:

1. Respect the Unknown

• Not everything needs scientific explanation
• Mystery has value
• Uncertainty can be beautiful

2. Nature Has Agency

• Rivers, mountains, forests aren't passive resources
• Environmental consequences manifest as yokai anger
• Respect natural limits

3. Objects Have Stories

• Your possessions aren't disposable
• Things accumulate meaning through use

• Care creates relationships (even with objects)

4. Death Isn't the End

• Spirits continue
• Unresolved issues persist
• Memory lives on through haunting

5. Community Matters

• Shared stories bind people
• Local yokai create local identity
• Oral tradition preserves culture

6. Humor in Horror

• Many yokai are absurd (butt-eye, pillow-flipper)
• Laughter defangs fear
• Play with the terrifying

Resources for Further Exploration

Books (English)

Academic:

• The Book of Yōkai by Michael Dylan Foster (2015) — Best scholarly introduction
• Pandemonium and Parade by Michael Dylan Foster (2009)
• Japanese Ghosts & Demons by Stephen Addiss (2001)
• Japanese Tales by Royall Tyler (1987) — Classic translations

Popular:

• Yokai Attack! by Hiroko Yoda & Matt Alt (2012) — Fun, illustrated guide
• The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons by Matthew Meyer (2012) — Beautiful artwork
• Shigeru Mizuki's Yokai translated editions
• The Hour of Meeting Evil Spirits by Matthew Meyer (2013)

Online Resources

Databases:

• Yokai.com — Comprehensive yokai database by Matthew Meyer
• Obakemono Project — Academic yokai research
• Japanese Folklore Wiki — Collaborative database

Museums & Archives:

• International Research Center for Japanese Studies digital archive
• Mizuki Shigeru Museum virtual exhibits

Japanese Resources

Essential Texts (If you read Japanese):

• 『妖怪学新考』 小松和彦 (Komatsu Kazuhiko's comprehensive yokai studies)
• 『図説 日本妖怪大全』 水木しげる (Shigeru Mizuki's illustrated compendium)
• 『画図百鬼夜行』 鳥山石燕 (Toriyama Sekien's original 1776 work)

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Conclusion: Living With Yokai

We end where we began: in the shadows, in the unexplained moments, in the spaces between rationality and imagination.

Yokai remind us that the world is stranger, deeper, more mysterious than we often acknowledge. They're manifestations of the questions science cannot answer, the experiences logic cannot explain, the feelings words cannot capture.

In an age of GPS tracking, CCTV cameras, and algorithmic prediction, yokai are the last refuges of genuine mystery. They represent the beautiful, terrifying possibility that despite all our technology and knowledge, we still don't understand everything.

And perhaps we shouldn't want to.

The next time you hear footsteps behind you when no one's there, or see shadows move independently, or feel watched in an empty room—maybe it's just your imagination.

Or maybe betobeto-san is following you home.

Maybe a kasa-obake is hiding in your closet.

Maybe the old umbrella you're about to throw away is just three years away from its hundredth birthday.

Maybe the fox you saw crossing the road was going home to transform into a beautiful woman.

Maybe.

And that "maybe" is where yokai live—and why they'll never truly disappear.

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Article researched and written by the Wallango Editorial Team | Sources: International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Michael Dylan Foster (UC Davis), Komatsu Kazuhiko research, Shigeru Mizuki archives, classical Japanese texts (Wakan Sansai Zue, Gazu Hyakki Yagyō), peer-reviewed folklore journals

Image Credits: All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons, public domain works from Edo Period (1603-1868) and Meiji Period (1868-1912). Primary artists: Toriyama Sekien, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Katsushika Hokusai.

Quick Reference: Yokai Danger Levels

EXTREME DANGER 🔴

• Shuten-dōji
• Tamamo-no-Mae
• Gashadokuro
• Ushi-oni
• Onryō (especially powerful ones)

HIGH DANGER 🟠

• Oni (most types)
• Jorōgumo
• Yuki-onna
• Nure-onna
• Tsuchigumo

MODERATE DANGER 🟡

• Kappa (can be reasoned with)
• Tengu (can be avoided)

• Bakeneko/Nekomata
• Rokurokubi
• Yama-uba

LOW DANGER 🟢

• Kitsune (usually tricksters, not killers)
• Tanuki (comedic)
• Nurikabe (just annoying)
• Betobeto-san (just scary)
• Most tsukumogami

BENEFICIAL ✅

• Zashiki-warashi
• Baku
• Shōjō
• Inugami (if controlled)
• Yatagarasu

This comprehensive guide represents one of the most detailed English-language yokai resources available online. Bookmark, share, and reference freely. Japanese Yokai: The Complete Guide to Demons, Spirits & Supernatural Creatures